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Title: Hydrology for Sustainability

(EPUB 3.0)

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WCAG 2.0 A 00000
WCAG 2.0 AA 00000
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WCAG 2.1 A 00000
WCAG 2.1 AA 00000
WCAG 2.1 AAA 00000
WCAG 2.2 A 00000
WCAG 2.2 AA 00000
WCAG 2.2 AAA 00000
EPUB 00000
Best Practice 00000
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Total 00000

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Metadata

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Publication metadata.
Name Value
dc:title Hydrology for Sustainability
dc:creator Stephanie Kampf
dc:subject Hydrology;sustainability;water harvesting;streamflow;groundwater;precipitation
dc:description Hydrology for Sustainability is an accessible textbook introducing the movement of water through Earth’s interconnected systems. Written for undergraduate students and readers with little prior technical background, it explains the key processes of the hydrologic cycle, from clouds, rainfall, snow and ice to soils, groundwater, rivers, floods and droughts. Rather than presenting hydrology solely through equations or engineering tools, the book places water science within the wider context of environmental sustainability and human society. It shows how hydrologic knowledge can help us understand urgent challenges, including water scarcity, flooding, climate change, urbanization, groundwater depletion and the ecological impacts of water infrastructure. Clear explanations are paired with practical examples, technical boxes and global case studies. Topics include fog harvesting, rainwater collection, snowpack monitoring, soil-water processes, groundwater flow, watershed management, flood risk and hydrological modelling. The book also highlights Indigenous and local water knowledge alongside modern scientific methods. Engaging interdisciplinary and solutions-oriented, this textbook is ideal for courses in hydrology, environmental science, sustainability, geography and water resource management.
dc:date 2026-09-30T13:27:33Z
dc:rights ©2026 Stephanie Kampf, CC BY-NC 4.0
dc:language de-DE | en-GB
dc:identifier urn:uuid:9f9e033f-7243-49a0-81e5-797626a4dc27 | 978-1-80511-587-8 | https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0551
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dcterms:modified 2026-10-05T12:10:34Z
schema:accessibilitySummary This publication conforms to WCAG 2.0 AA.
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Outlines

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TOC Outline

  1. Contents
  2. Author bio
  3. Introduction
  4. 1. Clouds and rain
    1. Vapor and liquid
      1. Box 1.1 Fog harvesting
    2. Cloud formation
      1. Box 1.2 Cloud seeding
    3. Global circulation
      1. Subtropical circulation cells
      2. Polar and mid-latitude circulation cells
    4. Extreme rainfall
    5. Perspectives on sustainability
  5. 2. Snow and ice
    1. Snowfall
    2. Snowpack
    3. Glaciers and permafrost
    4. Perspectives on sustainability
  6. 3. Evaporation and transpiration
    1. Evaporation
    2. Transpiration
      1. Actual evapotranspiration
    3. Moisture recycling
    4. Perspectives on sustainability
  7. 4. Land and soil
    1. Rocks and sediments
      1. Igneous and metamorphic
      2. Sediments and sedimentary rocks
    2. Topography
      1. Mass movements
      2. Erosion
      3. Glaciers
    3. Weathering
    4. Soil
      1. Formation
      2. Structure
      3. Classification
      4. Perspectives on sustainability
  8. 5. Water underground
    1. Infiltration and soil water redistribution
    2. Groundwater flow
      1. Definitions
      2. Recharge and discharge
    3. Groundwater as water supply
    4. Perspectives on sustainability
  9. 6. Lakes and wetlands
    1. Lakes
    2. Wetlands
    3. Perspectives on sustainability
  10. 7. Surface flow
    1. Hillslopes
    2. Streamflow generation
      1. Overland flow
      2. Interflow
    3. Channels
      1. Channel head
      2. Channel form
      3. Sediment transport
      4. Networks
    4. Streamflow
      1. Hyporheic exchange
      2. Hydrographs
    5. Water ages
    6. Perspectives on sustainability
  11. 8. Water balance and hydrologic change
    1. Water balance
      1. Annual
      2. Seasonal
    2. Hydrologic change
      1. Climate change
      2. Land cover change
      3. Human interventions in streams
    3. Perspectives on sustainability
  12. Conclusions
  13. Acknowledgements
  14. Further reading
  15. List of illustrations
  16. Index
  17. About the team
  18. This book need not end here…
  19. You may also be interested in:

Headings Outline

  • HYDROLOGY FOR SUSTAINABILITY
  • Hydrology for Sustainability
    • Stephanie Kampf
  • Contents
  • Author bio
  • Introduction
  • 1. Clouds and rain
    • Vapor and liquid
      • Box 1.1 Fog harvesting
    • Cloud formation
      • Box 1.2 Cloud seeding
    • Global circulation
      • Subtropical circulation cells
      • Technical background: Measuring precipitation
      • Box 1.3 Climate teleconnections
      • Polar and mid-latitude circulation cells
      • Box 1.4 Rooftop rainwater harvesting
    • Extreme rainfall
      • Technical tool: Rainfall frequency analysis
    • Perspectives on sustainability
  • 2. Snow and ice
    • Snowfall
      • Box 2.1 Snow making and banking
    • Snowpack
      • Technical background: Snow measurements
      • Box 2.2 Snow harvesting
      • Technical background: Snow physics
    • Glaciers and permafrost
      • Box 2.3 Ice stupas
    • Perspectives on sustainability
  • 3. Evaporation and transpiration
    • Evaporation
      • Technical background: Land surface energy budget
      • Box 3.1 Evaporation measurements at Lake Mead
    • Transpiration
      • Technical tool: Calculating evaporation and evapotranspiration
      • Open water
      • Land surface
      • Reference crop
      • Actual evapotranspiration
      • Box 3.2 Water needs in polyculture vs. monoculture
    • Moisture recycling
    • Perspectives on sustainability
  • 4. Land and soil
    • Rocks and sediments
      • Igneous and metamorphic
      • Sediments and sedimentary rocks
        • Wind transport
      • Box 4.1 Erosion and revegetation on China’s Loess Plateau
        • Water transport
        • Gravity and ice transport
        • Lithified sediments
    • Topography
      • Mass movements
      • Box 4.2 Landslides and erosion in Aotearoa (New Zealand)
      • Erosion
      • Glaciers
    • Weathering
    • Soil
      • Formation
      • Structure
      • Classification
      • Perspectives on sustainability
      • Box 4.3 Soil regeneration and the milpa cycle
  • 5. Water underground
    • Infiltration and soil water redistribution
      • Technical background: Measuring infiltration
      • Technical background: Soil hydraulic properties
      • Box 5.1 Smart sensors for irrigation
    • Groundwater flow
      • Definitions
      • Recharge and discharge
      • Technical background: Measuring hydraulic head and calculating subsurface flow
      • Box 5.2 Managed recharge techniques
    • Groundwater as water supply
    • Perspectives on sustainability
      • Box 5.3 Great Artesian Basin drawdown and recovery
  • 6. Lakes and wetlands
    • Lakes
      • Box 6.1 Drying lakes
    • Wetlands
    • Perspectives on sustainability
      • Box 6.2 Farming in wet conditions
      • Box 6.3 Salt marsh restoration in the Netherlands
  • 7. Surface flow
    • Hillslopes
    • Streamflow generation
      • Overland flow
        • Infiltration excess
        • Saturation excess
      • Box 7.1 Strategies for reducing overland flow
      • Interflow
    • Channels
      • Channel head
      • Channel form
      • Sediment transport
      • Box 7.2 Migrating channel networks and sediment transport after fire
      • Networks
      • Technical background: Deriving channel networks from digital topographic data
    • Streamflow
      • Hyporheic exchange
      • Hydrographs
      • Box 7.3 Beaver dams
      • Technical background: Channel hydraulics and hydraulic models
      • Technical background: Measuring streamflow
    • Water ages
      • Box 7.4 Stable isotopes to identify water sources
    • Perspectives on sustainability
  • 8. Water balance and hydrologic change
    • Water balance
      • Annual
      • Seasonal
    • Hydrologic change
      • Climate change
        • Rain vs. snow
        • Circulation patterns
      • Box 8.1 Water balance effects of climate and land cover change in the Amazon basin
        • Precipitation extremes
        • Evapotranspiration
      • Technical background: Quantifying drought
      • Land cover change
        • Deforestation
        • Afforestation
        • Urbanization
      • Box 8.2 Invasive trees in South Africa
      • Human interventions in streams
      • Box 8.3 Human interventions on flow in the Colorado River Basin
      • Technical background: Hydrologic models
    • Perspectives on sustainability
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • Further reading
    • Science background
    • Sustainability background
  • List of illustrations
    • Figures
    • Tables
  • Index
  • About the team
  • This book need not end here…
    • Share
    • Donate
    • We invite you to connect with us on our socials!
    • Read more at the Open Book Publishers Blog
  • You may also be interested in:
  • Contents
    • Landmarks

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Images

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Book cover for 'Hydrology for Sustainability' by Stephanie Kampf, volume 2 in the Critical Physical Geography series, published by Open Book Publishers. A dark teal banner across the top of the cover carries the series name, 'CRITICAL PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY', in white capital letters. Below, against a pale turquoise background, the book title 'Hydrology for Sustainability' appears in dark brown serif type, with the author's name, 'Stephanie Kampf', set beneath it in blue-grey type. The lower two-thirds of the cover is filled by a photograph of a drought-affected landscape: in the foreground, an expanse of deeply cracked, dry mud stretches towards a small, shrunken body of water at the centre of the frame, bordered by dry grassland and low hills. Above this, a dramatic sky of dense storm clouds is lit from behind by a low sun, casting warm orange and pink light through breaks in the cloud, with the silhouette of a distant mountain range along the horizon. N/A N/A N/A cover.xhtml#epubcfi(/4/2/2) doc-cover
Open Book Publishers logo N/A N/A N/A title.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container002]/6/2[Container001]/2) N/A
Creative Commons logo N/A N/A N/A copyright.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container006]/6/2/2[CC-logo]/2) N/A
Open Access logo N/A N/A N/A copyright.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container006]/6/4/2[CP-logo]/2) N/A
Line chart plotting saturation vapour pressure (kPa) against air temperature (degrees Celsius) from 0 to 40°C, showing an upward-curving 'Saturation' line from about 0.6 kPa to 7.4 kPa. The region above the curve is labelled 'Air is unsaturated, RH<100%' and shaded pink, with an annotated point and arrow reading 'Cooling air can cause it to reach saturation'. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/12/2[Container010]/2) N/A
Photograph of a row of large rectangular mesh fog-collector panels mounted on metal frames along a rocky, vegetated hillside, shrouded in thick fog. Support cables anchor each panel to the sloping ground, which is covered in reddish soil, scattered rocks and low shrubs. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/24/8/2[Container011]/2) N/A
Photograph of a wide, glacially fed river flowing towards the camera between forested mountain slopes, with snow-capped peaks and low cloud in the distance. A gravel bar with scattered driftwood sits at the river's edge. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/30/2[Container012]/2) N/A
Photograph of a heavy rain shower falling as distinct dark grey shafts from a large cumulus cloud system over a wide body of water, with a low tree-lined shoreline and a partially collapsed wooden jetty visible on the right. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/40/2[Container013]/2) N/A
Photograph of a dense, dark storm cloud mass extending across the sky above a distant mountain range, viewed over the silhouetted rooftops and evergreen trees of a hillside neighbourhood in the foreground. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/54/2[Container014]/2) N/A
Two-part line drawing illustrating cloud-seeding methods. On the left, a ground-based generator releases smoke that rises into a cloud, which then produces rainfall; on the right, an aircraft releases particles into a cloud from above, which also produces rainfall, with an arrow showing the cloud drifting. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/58/10/2[Container015]/2) N/A
Two globe visualisations of atmospheric wind and moisture patterns over the Americas, dated 15 January 2025 and 15 July 2025, both labelling the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) as a bright band of moist, converging winds near the equator. The July image also labels the Atacama Desert along the west coast of South America, shown in dry ochre tones. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/70/2[Container016]/2) N/A
World map showing grand average climatology of precipitation in millimetres per year, coloured from dark blue (driest) through green and yellow to red (wettest, over 6000mm/year). A bright yellow-to-red band marks the Intertropical Convergence Zone across the equatorial Pacific and Indian Oceans, while large blue-black areas over the subtropical oceans and deserts indicate low rainfall. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/76/2[Container017]/2) N/A
Four labelled photographs (a–d) of rain gauge types: (a) a clear graduated cylinder gauge mounted on a wooden post; (b) a tall cylindrical metal gauge with a scoop-shaped opening; (c) a larger grey cylindrical gauge on a tripod stand with a narrow slot near the top; (d) a compact white tipping-bucket gauge with an internal seesaw mechanism, mounted on metal legs. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/80/6/2[Container018]/2) N/A
Photograph of two large cylindrical precipitation gauges mounted on tripod stands in a snow-covered forest clearing, each fitted with a wide flared skirt of vertical vanes around a central collecting tube to reduce wind effects on the catch. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/80/18/2[Container019]/2) N/A
Two world maps of sea surface temperature anomalies in degrees Celsius, coloured from dark blue (cold anomalies) through white to dark red (warm anomalies). The upper map, labelled 'La Niña, January 2023', shows a band of cool water across the equatorial Pacific; the lower map, labelled 'El Niño, December 2023', shows that same band replaced by warm water. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/82/8/2[Container020]/2) N/A
Three side-by-side globe visualisations labelled 'Temperature', 'Precipitable water' and 'Cloud water', each showing swirling atmospheric patterns over North America with a weather front and, in the centre and right globes, an atmospheric river both labelled with arrows extending from the Pacific towards the west coast. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/98/2[Container021]/2) N/A
Two globe visualisations labelled 'Surface' and '500 hPa', showing coloured, swirling wind and temperature patterns over North and South America at two different atmospheric levels, with warm yellow and orange tones near the surface and contrasting blue and purple bands in the upper-level image. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/106/2[Container022]/2) N/A
Photograph of a man in a red T-shirt reaching up to a downpipe beside a row of five large black cylindrical rainwater storage tanks positioned along the side of a house, with a garden and trees in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/112/26/2[Container023]/2) N/A
Line chart plotting rainfall intensity in millimetres per hour against time of day, comparing a jagged dark blue line for 15-minute intensity data with a smoother pink line for 60-minute intensity data. Both lines show several sharp peaks, the highest reaching over 30mm/hr in the morning, with two further tall narrow spikes in the 15-minute data during the late afternoon and evening that are smoothed out in the 60-minute line. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/118/2[Container024]/2) N/A
Pair of shaded relief maps of the contiguous United States showing extreme rainfall depths, labelled '1 hour' and '24 hour'. Each uses a blue colour scale with a legend of precipitation ranges in millimetres; both show the heaviest rainfall depths concentrated across the south-eastern states and along the Gulf Coast, with progressively lighter shading towards the west. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/130/2[Container025]/2) N/A
Line chart plotting precipitation (inches) against annual exceedance probability (%) on a log-scale x-axis from 50% to 0.1%, showing observed data points as black dots and seven fitted probability distribution curves (Generalized Logistic, Generalized Normal, Generalized Pareto, Pearson Type III, Kappa, Wakeby and Generalized Extreme Value) in different colours. The curves closely track the observed data through most of the range but diverge substantially at the lowest exceedance probabilities, spanning roughly 11.5 to 20 inches at the 0.1% probability. N/A N/A N/A ch1.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container027]/138/22/2[Container026]/2) N/A
Grid of twelve black-and-white photomicrographs of individual snow crystals, numbered 889 to 900, each shown against a black background. The crystals display a range of hexagonal forms, including plate-like crystals with faceted edges, stellar dendrites with elaborately branched arms, and crystals with fern-like or needle-like side branches. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/14/2[Container029]/2) N/A
Aerial photograph of a small Alpine village nestled below a range of rocky, partly snow-dusted mountains, with ski runs and access roads visible on the slopes above and a scattered mix of chalet-style buildings with pitched roofs below. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/22/10/2[Container030]/2) N/A
Six-panel chart showing the percentage of time snow is present (SP%) as a function of elevation (m) and latitude (°) for North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania, using a colour scale from pale yellow (low persistence) through orange and green to dark blue (high persistence, up to 100%). Grey shading marks areas with no or negligible snow cover; snow persistence generally increases with both elevation and distance from the equator, most prominently in the North America, Europe and Asia panels. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/30/2[Container031]/2) N/A
Photograph of a snow-laden juniper tree in a residential garden, its branches heavily weighed down with fresh snow, with sandstone cliffs faintly visible through falling snow in the background and a snow-dusted house to the left. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/38/2[Container032]/2) N/A
Close-up photograph of dead shrub vegetation coated in feathery rime ice, its frost-covered stalks fanning outward against an overcast sky, with a snow-covered plain and a wooden fence visible in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/44/2[Container033]/2) N/A
Line chart plotting snow depth and density against month from October to July. A dark blue 'depth' line rises to a peak of over 2000mm in early April before declining to zero by July; a cyan 'SWE' line, labelled 'accumulation' then 'peak' then 'ablation', rises more gradually to a rounded peak around 700mm in late April; a dotted black 'density' line climbs steadily from about 200 to 450 kg/m³ over the same period. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/50/2[Container034]/2) N/A
Photograph looking down a rocky, grass-lined gully partly filled with a receding bank of snow, with dry hillside vegetation and low hills visible beyond. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/62/2[Container035]/2) N/A
Four labelled photographs (a–d) of snow science fieldwork: (a) two graduated snow stakes in a forest clearing; (b) a researcher kneeling beside an instrument tower with a sensor circled in red; (c) a researcher reaching up to a snow stake in a forest; (d) a researcher crouched examining a snow pit wall with an instrument panel and a shovel nearby. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/66/6/2[Container036]/2) N/A
Side-by-side image pairing a photograph of a forested snow measurement station, with instrument towers and a snow pillow visible on the ground, and a labelled diagram explaining the same setup: a 'Depth Sensor' mounted on a tower measures the distance down to a flat 'Snow Pillow' resting on the ground below. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/66/16/2[Container037]/2) N/A
Photograph of a mounded, wind-sculpted snowdrift studded with fallen pine needles and debris, curving between tree trunks in a partly forested, rocky landscape. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/70/2[Container038]/2) N/A
Photograph of a long wooden snow fence running along a hillside ridge, with a substantial drift of snow accumulated on its downwind side against an otherwise largely snow-free, grassy slope. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/78/8/2[Container039]/2) N/A
Line chart plotting radiation flux (W/m²) against date in June, comparing incoming and outgoing longwave radiation (green solid and dotted lines, both around 300–400 W/m²) with incoming and outgoing shortwave radiation (red solid and dotted lines, the incoming line showing sharp daily peaks up to around 1000 W/m²). Arrows labelled 'Snow present' and 'Snow gone' mark two periods, with the shortwave peaks becoming taller after the snow disappears. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/78/20/12/6[Container040]/2) N/A
Photograph of a large glacier's crevassed, jagged ice front descending to a lake, with floating ice fragments in the water, dead trees in the foreground, and snow-capped mountains and low cloud in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/86/2[Container041]/2) N/A
Photograph of a wide, rocky alpine tundra landscape covered in dry grasses and lichen-covered boulders, with distant mountain ranges on the horizon under a partly cloudy sky. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/96/2[Container042]/2) N/A
Photograph of nine people standing in a row on snow-covered ground in front of two tall, conical man-made ice formations resembling stupas, with bare mountains and a clear blue sky in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch2.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container044]/102/8/2[Container043]/2) N/A
Close-up of grass blades covered in water droplets, growing beside a wooden deck and a granite boulder. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/16/2[Container046]/2) N/A
A four-panel line graph plotting latent heat flux (LE), solar radiation (Rs), vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and wind speed against time from April to October, with vertical dashed lines marking periods of high wind, low Rs and low VPD. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/26/2[Container047]/2) N/A
Two line graphs comparing energy flux components (ground heat flux G, sensible heat flux H, latent heat flux LE and net radiation Rn) over a 24-hour period at a wet site and a dry site, showing net radiation peaking around midday at both, while latent heat flux dominates at the wet site and sensible heat flux dominates at the dry site. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/30/14/6/6[Container048]/2) N/A
Satellite image of a reservoir winding through arid, mountainous desert terrain, showing dark water channels amid tan and reddish rock formations. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/30/30/2[Container049]/2) N/A
World map with a colour-graded legend running from dark blue (lowest values, under 250) at the poles to pale yellow (highest values, over 2,500) across major desert regions such as the Sahara, Arabian Peninsula and Australia, with green tones across temperate and tropical zones in between. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/34/2[Container050]/2) N/A
Photograph of a circular evaporation pan on a wooden pallet, covered with a wire mesh guard and holding measuring instruments, with an anemometer mounted on a pole beside it, set in a grassy field with a small fenced sampling plot in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/38/8/2[Container051]/2) N/A
Photograph of a weather monitoring station on a rocky outcrop beside a lake, comprising instrument housings, sensors mounted on a horizontal boom, and solar panels, with mountains in the background under a blue sky. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/38/18/2[Container052]/2) N/A
Photograph of exposed tree roots gripping rocky soil at the base of coniferous tree trunks, in a forest clearing with a scree slope and greenery in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/50/2[Container053]/2) N/A
Two-panel line graph showing soil moisture percentage (top) and latent heat flux LE (bottom) over a year for three land cover types — field, hardwood and pine — with soil moisture peaking in winter and spring before declining through summer, while latent heat flux peaks in summer. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/62/2[Container054]/2) N/A
Photograph of large golden barrel cacti growing among dry grass and shrubs on a rocky hillside, with a person visible in the background wearing a red top. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/70/2[Container055]/2) N/A
Photograph of a weather station instrument tower standing in a field of alfalfa, with sensors and a wind vane mounted on horizontal crossbars, several people standing nearby, and a cornfield visible in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/74/50/2[Container056]/2) N/A
World map showing mean annual evapotranspiration in millimetres per year, colour-graded from pale tan for the lowest values through yellow and green to dark green and purple for the highest, with the greatest evapotranspiration concentrated in tropical rainforest regions such as the Amazon Basin, Central Africa and Southeast Asia. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/80/2[Container057]/2) N/A
Black-and-white line illustration of the "Three Sisters" companion planting method, showing a maize plant with bean vines climbing its stalk and squash growing at its base, with an underground cross-section revealing the root systems of all three plants. N/A N/A N/A ch3.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container059]/94/6/2[Container058]/2) N/A
World map colour-coded by surface rock type, showing the global distribution of igneous (intrusive and extrusive), metamorphic, sedimentary, carbonate, evaporite and unconsolidated terrain, along with areas of water and ice cover. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/14/2[Container061]/2) N/A
Photograph of Half Dome, a granite dome rock formation in Yosemite National Park, showing its sheer rounded face streaked with dark water stains, rising above a forest of pine trees under a clear blue sky. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/24/2[Container062]/2) N/A
Photograph of a weathered rock outcrop showing exfoliation and spheroidal weathering patterns, with a dead juniper root running down a vertical crack and a live juniper tree visible at the top of the formation. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/30/2[Container063]/2) N/A
Photograph of a dark cave or lava tube entrance set into a jagged volcanic rock outcrop, with a person barely visible standing at the mouth of the opening. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/36/2[Container064]/2) N/A
Photograph of a narrow waterfall cascading down a fissure between two sheer volcanic rock walls, flowing into a shallow rocky pool surrounded by wildflowers and shrubs. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/44/2[Container065]/2) N/A
A young girl in a blue and yellow dress sits on a large sand dune, brushing sand from her legs. Footprints crisscross the sand in the foreground, with rolling dunes and a handful of distant walkers visible against a partly cloudy sky. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/58/2[Container066]/2) N/A
A composite of satellite and aerial imagery illustrating landscape change. The upper panel compares the same mountainous area in 1984 and 2022, showing an increased network of roads and tracks. The lower panel is a close-up aerial view labelled 'Terraced agriculture' and 'Gullies revegetating', showing stepped agricultural terraces beside a small reservoir on a vegetated hillside. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/62/12/2[Container067]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a mountainside showing dense, branching drainage patterns and gully erosion across exposed, pale sediment, with darker shadowed ridges above and a faint track crossing the upper slope. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/70/2[Container068]/2) N/A
A line of hikers with backpacks walks along a rocky trail cut through a glacial moraine, with a rugged, vegetated mountain ridge and a snow-covered glacier visible in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/82/2[Container069]/2) N/A
A steep, layered red sandstone canyon with sheer rock walls rising on either side, dotted with small shrubs and trees growing from ledges and crevices. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/94/2[Container070]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a large landslide scar cutting through green agricultural terrain, with deep cracks and fissures fanning across the slumped ground. Scattered houses, fields, and a small pond surround the affected area. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/118/2[Container071]/2) N/A
A wide talus slope of loose, angular rock fragments extending down a hillside, bordered by coniferous forest and scattered young trees. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/126/2[Container072]/2) N/A
A rocky debris flow fills a gully between hillsides burned in a past wildfire, with blackened, leafless tree trunks standing on either side. A shallow stream runs across the foreground beneath a blue sky with scattered clouds. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/130/2[Container073]/2) N/A
Three sheep, including two lambs, stand on a steep green grassy hillside. A small eroded gully with exposed reddish-brown soil is visible on the slope behind them. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/136/8/2[Container074]/2) N/A
An aerial view of forested, mountainous terrain with a river winding through steep valleys. Pale, bare patches of exposed soil mark small landslide scars along the riverbanks and slopes. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/136/12/2[Container075]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a heavily eroded, striated mountainside descending into a desert basin, with dark shadowed slopes and a triangular patch of dark, vegetated terrain to one side, and forested hills with a visible track in the upper right. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/150/2[Container076]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a rocky, lake-dotted landscape with irregular blue-green water bodies winding between areas of exposed bedrock, with patches of snow or ice in one corner. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/160/2[Container077]/2) N/A
A four-panel figure showing rock weathering features. Panel a shows a tall sandstone rock face with a vertical fracture and dark staining. Panel b shows a broad, bare granite rock dome with shallow weathering pits, overlooking a forested mountain landscape. Panels c and d are close-up views of granite rock surfaces marked by cracks, lichen growth, and small plants rooted in crevices. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/170/2[Container078]/2) N/A
A salt flat landscape with a shallow, still lake reflecting the sky in the foreground, bordered by rough, crusted salt-and-clay ground. Low vegetated mounds rise from the water, with a distant volcanic peak visible on the horizon under a clear blue sky. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/190/2[Container079]/2) N/A
Two world maps on a black background, using shades of blue and purple to depict global datasets. The upper map is titled 'Slope (deg)' and shows land surface slope in degrees, ranging from under 0.001 to over 18 degrees. The lower map is titled 'Depth (m)' and shows depth in metres, ranging from 0 to over 49 metres, with darker purple indicating higher values across mountainous and high-latitude regions. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/204/2[Container080]/2) N/A
A close-up soil profile showing a dark, crumbly, organic-rich topsoil layer above a paler, sandier subsoil layer, with grass roots visible at the surface. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/220/2[Container081]/2) N/A
A world map on a black background showing the global distribution of soil types, coloured according to a legend listing thirteen soil orders, including Entisol, Aridosol, Inceptisol, Mollisol, Ultisol, and Oxisol, among others. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/242/2[Container082]/2) N/A
A layered soil and sediment exposure along a roadside cutting, showing alternating dark and pale horizontal bands. Overhanging trees and a wooden gate are visible to the left, with a gravel path in the foreground. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/262/2[Container083]/2) N/A
A view through rows of tall maize plants with dark purple stems, growing above dense grass and yellow-flowering weeds beneath an overcast sky. N/A N/A N/A ch4.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container085]/268/12/2[Container084]/2) N/A
A close-up of a dark, crumbly soil clod being lifted by hand, revealing an earthworm within it. The soil sits amid a bed of pale straw mulch. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/20/2[Container087]/2) N/A
A two-part figure showing an infiltrometer. On the left, a photograph shows two concentric metal rings inserted into the soil and filled with water, with a clear graduated tube standing upright to measure water level. On the right, a labelled diagram of a tension infiltrometer identifies its parts, including the suction control tube, stopper, bubble chamber, chamber barrier, Mariotte tube, water reservoir, and a porous sintered-steel disc set into an elastomer base. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/24/6/2[Container088]/2) N/A
A line chart plotting infiltration rate in centimetres per hour against time in hours. Loamy sand curves start high, above 80 cm/hr, and decline steeply within the first hour towards a saturated hydraulic conductivity of around 27 cm/hr. Clay loam curves start much lower, under 10 cm/hr, and decline more gradually to below 5 cm/hr. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/24/14/2[Container089]/2) N/A
A layered grey sediment exposure along a riverbank, showing horizontal bands of varying texture and colour beneath a line of shrubs and trees at the top. Roots hang down into the exposed section, with gravel visible near the base. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/28/2[Container090]/2) N/A
Two line graphs comparing clay, loam, and sand. The left graph plots volumetric water content against matric potential, showing clay retaining the most water at high matric potential and sand losing water most sharply, with 'Field capacity' and 'Wilting point' regions marked. The right graph plots hydraulic conductivity on a logarithmic scale against matric potential, showing sand with the highest conductivity when saturated but the steepest decline, with clay and loam converging at high matric potential. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/34/8/2[Container091]/2) N/A
A person wearing black gaiters holds a handheld soil moisture probe with two metal prongs beside a wooden stake near a stream, with a coiled black cable trailing into the water. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/36/8/2[Container092]/2) N/A
A schematic diagram of a solar-powered smart irrigation system. On the left, boxes show the energy source (solar panel and battery), sensing unit (soil moisture sensor and WiFi-enabled control unit), and a connection to a user's smartphone, feeding into an irrigation system with a pump, valve, and drip line to a tree. On the right, an aerial view of an orchard field shows sensor locations marked with triangles, distinguishing surface-only from combined surface-and-subsurface sensors, linked by WiFi to a control point. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/36/16/2[Container093]/2) N/A
A two-part figure. The photograph shows two researchers wearing waders standing in a wetland stream lined with autumn-coloured shrubs, with a measuring tape strung between them. The accompanying graph plots water level in metres against month, showing groundwater and river levels tracking closely together, both rising sharply from April to a peak around June before declining through autumn. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/50/2[Container094]/2) N/A
A cross-section diagram of a groundwater system showing a recharge area on a wooded hillside and a discharge area where a stream meets a water table. Arrows trace flow paths from a pumped well and the water table down through an unconfined aquifer, a confining bed, and confined aquifers, labelled with flow times ranging from days and years near the surface to centuries and millennia at depth. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/58/2[Container095]/2) N/A
A cross-section diagram illustrating hydraulic gradient measurement using wells and piezometers. Four labelled scenarios (A, B, C, D) show water levels h1 and h2 measured in wells across an unconfined aquifer, a confining layer, and a confined aquifer, including an artesian well. A formula defines hydraulic gradient as the difference between h1 and h2 divided by the distance between measurement points. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/62/20/2[Container096]/2) N/A
A three-dimensional block diagram illustrating a springshed. Arrows show water infiltrating at a surface watershed divide, passing through an eroded surface layer and a permeable rock layer sandwiched between two impermeable rock layers, before emerging as a spring at the hillside. A springshed boundary is marked separately from the surface watershed divide. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/64/8/2[Container097]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a village and surrounding farmland, with a cluster of densely packed rooftops and buildings on one side, bordered by green cultivated fields and a network of terraced, curving pathways across bare, eroded ground. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/64/16/2[Container098]/2) N/A
A small spring emerges from beneath a boulder at the base of a large tree, forming a dark, wet channel that runs downhill through a forest floor covered in fallen branches and low green vegetation. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/68/2[Container099]/2) N/A
A pale, mineral-encrusted rock formation with water trickling down its surface into a fast-flowing, turbulent stream below. Grass grows from cracks and ledges on top of the rock. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/78/2[Container100]/2) N/A
A labelled cross-section diagram of a qanat, showing a vertical mother well connecting to a gently sloping underground channel through alluvium. A series of vertical access shafts of decreasing depth lead to a surface outlet, with the water table shown intersecting the channel. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/90/2[Container101]/2) N/A
A cross-section diagram showing a cone of depression around two pumped wells in an unconfined aquifer. The prior water table is shown as a gently sloping line, while the water table after pumping dips sharply around the wells before levelling off near a stream, with arrows indicating groundwater flow towards the wells. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/100/2[Container102]/2) N/A
A tall utility pole in a farming landscape marked with three signs reading '1925', '1955', and '1977', each positioned at a different height to illustrate land subsidence over time. A man in a hat stands at the base beside a sign reading 'San Joaquin Valley, California, BM S661, Subsidence 9M, 1925-1977', with a cultivated field visible to the right. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/114/2[Container103]/2) N/A
A black-and-white archival photograph of a tall jet of water shooting from an artesian bore into a pool, with a man standing to one side and a stack of timber posts nearby. Handwritten and printed captions on the image read '2294 Beels Bore, Depth 1706 ft, Flow 5,500,000 gals daily, Temp 109°F'. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/118/8/2[Container104]/2) N/A
A circular pool of dark water fringed by dense green rushes, set within an arid, sandy landscape with low hills in the distance. A wooden boardwalk runs alongside the pool, with patches of white mineral crust visible on the surrounding ground. N/A N/A N/A ch5.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/2[Container106]/118/20/2[Container105]/2) N/A
A small, still pond reflecting the sky and surrounding conifer trees, bordered by grassy, marshy ground with a large pale boulder partly submerged near its centre. A rocky, talus-covered mountain slope rises behind the treeline. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/16/2[Container108]/2) N/A
A three-panel satellite comparison of the Aral Sea in 1972, 2015, and 2020, showing the water body shrinking dramatically over time and separating into smaller fragments surrounded by exposed pale seabed. Below, a line graph plots annual inflow as a fraction of its maximum from around 2000 onwards, showing an overall declining trend with periodic peaks, dropping to near its lowest levels by 2020. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/24/6/2[Container109]/2) N/A
A two-panel figure. The upper photograph shows an expansive, rough salt crust stretching to distant hazy mountains under a clear sky. The lower photograph shows a pale turquoise saline pool rimmed with white salt crust, with utility poles and low hills in the background and a black pipe crossing the foreground. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/24/12/2[Container110]/2) N/A
A historical map of Tulare County, California, showing Tulare Lake and surrounding irrigated agricultural districts, overlaid above a modern satellite image of the same area. A red arrow connects the historical lake's location to the corresponding site in the satellite image, now covered by a patchwork of cultivated fields. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/24/22/2[Container111]/2) N/A
Two line graphs plotting water level in metres against date. The 'Marsh' graph shows regular daily fluctuations around zero over a few weeks in August, with a sharp spike above 1.4 metres near the end of the month. The 'Bog' graph shows a slower seasonal pattern over a full year, with water levels rising above zero from spring to summer and dropping to their lowest point, around minus 0.2 metres, in autumn. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/36/2[Container112]/2) N/A
Two rounded mangrove shrubs with dense, exposed prop roots growing from a pale tidal mudflat, set against a backdrop of taller, denser mangrove forest. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/46/2[Container113]/2) N/A
A four-panel figure comparing wetland types. 'Marsh' shows a grassy wetland with open water and industrial infrastructure on the horizon. 'Swamp' shows bald cypress trees with swollen bases standing in still water, their foliage in autumn colour. 'Fen' shows a grassy mountain meadow bordered by conifer forest and snow-capped peaks. 'Bog' shows a hummocky, grass-covered landscape with pools of dark water in the foreground and a rounded hill beyond. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/52/2[Container114]/2) N/A
A man wearing a cap works with a hoe among tall maize plants and dense grasses on a narrow strip of cultivated land beside a canal, with willow trees behind him and floating aquatic plants on the water's surface. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/68/10/2[Container115]/2) N/A
An aerial view of floating agricultural plots arranged in long, parallel green strips across a body of water, with small wooden boats navigating the channels between them and a cluster of palm trees near the centre. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/68/16/2[Container116]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a coastal salt marsh, showing irregular patches of green vegetation and reddish algal mats within a network of tidal channels, bordered by pale sandy barrier spits and open water. N/A N/A N/A ch6.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/70/10/2[Container117]/2) N/A
A nine-cell diagram illustrating hillslope shapes, arranged by plan form (divergent, planar, convergent) across the top and profile form (convex, planar, concave) down the side. Each cell shows a block diagram with arrows indicating the direction of surface water flow, with the concave-convergent example additionally labelled to show recharge, seepage, and groundwater. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/12/2[Container120]/2) N/A
A three-panel photograph sequence showing a stream running through a burned forest, with blackened tree trunks throughout. Standing water and a channel show orange-yellow mineral staining, with patches of green regrowth increasing across the sequence. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/28/2[Container121]/2) N/A
A two-panel figure comparing surfaces. The left photograph shows a wet, impervious paved road and pathway on a rainy day, with standing water pooling on the surface. The right photograph shows a close-up of permeable paving blocks with grass growing through regularly spaced gaps. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/46/8/2[Container122]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a landscaped urban wetland park, featuring an oval pond covered with lily pads in the foreground, connected by winding red pathways through grassy areas and trees to further ponds and a small footbridge in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/46/16/2[Container123]/2) N/A
An aerial view of an arid landscape covered with thousands of small, regularly spaced crescent-shaped earthen structures arranged in rows across the terrain, with pale dry stream channels cutting through the pattern. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/46/24/2[Container124]/2) N/A
A two-part figure illustrating groundwater dynamics on a hillslope. The photograph shows a peaty soil profile exposed at the edge of a pool, with labels explaining how a perched water table can develop from the top down or rise from the bottom up. The accompanying diagram shows a hillslope cross-section with an organic-rich surface soil layer over lower-conductivity sub-soil and bedrock, with notes explaining how streamflow can increase rapidly when the water table rises into the more conductive surface layer. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/54/2[Container125]/2) N/A
A two-panel figure. The left photograph shows three people examining a small pool of water in a grass-lined channel within a sagebrush landscape. The right photograph is a close-up of a grassy, rocky area with a narrow, dark channel of water cutting through the vegetation. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/66/2[Container126]/2) N/A
A diagram comparing three river channel types, each shown as a cross-section above a corresponding aerial photograph. 'Meandering, unconfined' shows a channel with a wide floodplain between terraces, winding through green forest in the photograph below. 'Meandering, confined' shows a channel constrained by valley walls with a narrower floodplain, corresponding to a tightly curving red-toned river bend. 'Braided, unconfined' shows multiple shallow channels divided by bars, matching a photograph of a pale, multi-threaded glacial river. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/80/2[Container127]/2) N/A
A small rocky stream labelled to show a riffle area of coarser sediment where water flows turbulently over rocks, leading into a calmer pool of finer sediment downstream. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/88/2[Container128]/2) N/A
A two-panel figure showing stream channel erosion in a burned forest. The left photograph shows a fallen, charred log spanning a deeply incised, muddy gully. The right photograph shows a narrow, steep-sided channel with cascading water, bordered by dense green regrowth among blackened tree trunks. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/102/6/2[Container129]/2) N/A
A photograph of a stream cutting through a bed of loose rock and gravel, labelled with a double-headed arrow marking the difference between a 'High deposition level' and the depth of 'Erosion into deposited sediments' along the channel bank. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/102/14/2[Container130]/2) N/A
A burned forest with rows of blackened, charred tree trunks rising from a forest floor scattered with pale straw mulch and patches of green grass regrowth. Two people are visible walking among the trees in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/102/20/2[Container131]/2) N/A
Two 3 × 3 grid diagrams side by side titled "Flow direction" and "Flow accumulation". The flow direction grid shows nine cells each containing a number (4, 7, 6 / 7, 3, 5 / 6, 5, 2) with blue arrows indicating the direction of flow from each cell to a neighbouring cell. The flow accumulation grid shows the same 3 × 3 layout with values of 0 in most cells, 5 in the centre cell, and 8 in the bottom-right cell, representing the cumulative number of upstream cells draining into each cell. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/114/8/2[Container132]/2) N/A
A schematic catchment map labelled "Skin", showing a dendritic network of streams within a catchment boundary. Stream reaches are colour-coded by discharge magnitude (light blue for minimum, yellow for mean, black for maximum), and black triangles mark flow heads at the top of each channel network. Annotations point to the "Highest A at flow head" in the south-west and "Lowest A at flow head" in the north-east. A scale bar of 2 km and a north arrow appear in the upper left. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/114/14/2[Container133]/2) N/A
A desert landscape in bloom, with dense clusters of purple lupine and yellow desert dandelions covering sandy ground beneath low mountains. A sandy wash crosses the foreground, flanked by scrubby desert shrubs, and a small group of hikers is visible in the distance on the right. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/120/2[Container134]/2) N/A
A wide, sandy dry riverbed with a narrow channel of shallow water running through its centre, where two people stand looking at the flow. Sparse vegetation and cottonwood trees line the channel, with rugged mountains rising under a partly cloudy sky in the background. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/126/2[Container135]/2) N/A
A slow-flowing mountain stream bordered by dense willow shrubs and grasses, with two vertical monitoring stakes and a length of tubing connected to instrumentation on the right bank. Forested mountain ridges are visible in the distance beneath a stormy, rain-streaked sky. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/132/2[Container136]/2) N/A
A cross-sectional diagram of a hillslope showing streamflow generation processes. Labels indicate that streamflow begins with seepage from soil at the top of the slope, the stream loses flow to groundwater in the upper-middle section, and the stream gains flow from groundwater lower down where bedrock transitions to alluvium. Blue arrows trace groundwater movement through the subsurface. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/140/2[Container137]/2) N/A
Three stacked line graphs of stream discharge (in cubic metres per second) against time, differentiated by colour for foothills, mountain, and urban catchments. The top panel spans April to October and shows a broad seasonal snowmelt peak in the mountain catchment during June and July. The middle panel zooms into early June, showing a hydrograph with labelled rising limb, peak, recession limb, and baseflow. The bottom panel spans mid-June to mid-July, showing a mountain hydrograph with a declining trend punctuated by daily diurnal snowmelt cycles and a small rain event spike in mid-July. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/150/2[Container138]/2) N/A
A beaver dam of interwoven branches and sticks spanning a slow-moving stream, with a pond of impounded water visible behind it. The surrounding wetland is fringed with golden autumn grasses and shrubs, with burned and unburned forest on the hillsides beyond under a partly cloudy sky. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/6/2[Container139]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a wide mountain valley containing a meandering river with a braided, marshy floodplain of side channels and pools. Green hillsides dotted with aspen groves and conifer stands rise in the background, with a dirt track following the river on the right side of the image. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/10/2[Container140]/2) N/A
A two-part diagram illustrating channel geometry. The upper section, titled "Longitudinal geometry", shows a channel bed sloping between two cross-sections labelled Section 1 and Section 2, with water depths d1 and d2, elevations z1 and z2, and a formula for slope as dx over dz. The lower section, titled "Cross section geometry", compares a low-flow channel cross-section with a small wetted area to a high-flow cross-section with a much larger wetted area and wetted perimeter, both shaded in blue. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/32/2[Container141]/2) N/A
A side-by-side pair of photographs illustrating stream channel terminology. The left photograph shows a narrow, straight channel cut through dry grassland, with a researcher crouched at the water's edge; the bed and bank are labelled. The right photograph shows a rocky mountain stream flowing through a forest, with labels identifying a meander, side channel, wood, bar, and boulder. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/44/2[Container142]/2) N/A
A close-up view of turbulent whitewater cascading over a small rock ledge in a river, forming a standing wave and foam. Large boulders line the foreground, and a person crouches on the rocky bank in the background near stacked bags and equipment. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/58/2[Container143]/2) N/A
A V-shaped weir plate set into a wooden flume structure, with water pooling behind it and a thin sheet of water passing through the notch. Dense coniferous forest forms the backdrop, and the structure's reflection is visible in the still water below. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/162/6/2[Container144]/2) N/A
A composite image showing, on the left, a researcher wearing waders and a cap reading a graduated staff gauge in a shallow, rocky stream with orange-stained sediment. On the right, a scatter plot with a fitted curve shows discharge in litres per second rising steeply with stage height in centimetres, based on a series of measured data points. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/162/18/2[Container145]/2) N/A
Three researchers conducting a stream survey in a marshy meadow channel bordered by golden autumn grasses and bare willow shrubs. One person stands in the water holding a surveying rod connected to a yellow measuring tape stretched across the channel, while two others crouch on the bank taking notes. Dark storm clouds loom over distant hills. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/162/26/2[Container146]/2) N/A
Two line graphs comparing electrical conductivity (in microsiemens) over time following a salt tracer injection, one for low flow of 5 litres per second and one for high flow of 113 litres per second. The low-flow graph shows a tall, broad conductivity peak lasting roughly 10 minutes, while the high-flow graph shows a much smaller, narrower peak lasting only a few minutes; a red dashed line marks the background conductivity in each case. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/162/38/2[Container147]/2) N/A
Two line graphs comparing electrical conductivity (in microsiemens) over time following a salt tracer injection, one for low flow of 5 litres per second and one for high flow of 113 litres per second. The low-flow graph shows a tall, broad conductivity peak lasting roughly 10 minutes, while the high-flow graph shows a much smaller, narrower peak lasting only a few minutes; a red dashed line marks the background conductivity in each case. N/A N/A N/A ch7.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/172/14/2[Container148]/2) N/A
A schematic diagram of a catchment water balance shown in cross-section, with inputs of precipitation, groundwater, and transbasin flow entering from the top and sides, and outputs of evaporation, transpiration, sublimation, groundwater outflow, transbasin outflow, and streamflow leaving the system. A fault line is shown within the bedrock. To the right, the inputs, outputs, and storage terms (snow, surface, and subsurface storage) are listed in equation form, concluding that inputs minus outputs equals the change in storage. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/20/2[Container151]/2) N/A
Two scatter plots relating precipitation and runoff. The left plot shows streamflow (Q) in millimetres increasing roughly linearly with precipitation (P) in millimetres across many sites, coloured by latitude. The right plot shows the runoff ratio (Q/P) against the aridity index (P/PET) on a logarithmic scale, with vertical lines and labels dividing the plot into arid, semiarid, and increasingly surplus zones, and points generally rising from lower left to upper right. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/32/2[Container152]/2) N/A
A line graph showing snow depth and streamflow depth, both in millimetres, plotted against date across three annual cycles from roughly early 2023 to late 2025. The solid purple line for snow rises to a sharp peak each winter and drops to zero in summer, while the dashed blue line for streamflow shows a smaller, delayed peak that follows each snow decline, before returning to near zero. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/44/2[Container153]/2) N/A
A line graph showing precipitation, reference evapotranspiration, and streamflow depths in millimetres plotted against date from late 2003 to mid-2007. Precipitation, shown as a solid cyan line, rises to sharp peaks of roughly 370 to 385 millimetres during each wet season and falls to near zero during dry seasons, which are labelled alternately across the plot. Reference ET, shown as a dotted pink line, fluctuates gently between about 90 and 140 millimetres throughout. Streamflow, shown as a dashed dark blue line, rises and falls more gradually, peaking at around 90 to 100 millimetres shortly after each precipitation peak. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/50/2[Container154]/2) N/A
A line graph showing precipitation, reference evapotranspiration, and streamflow depths in millimetres plotted against date from late 2006 to mid-2010. Precipitation, shown as a solid cyan line, fluctuates irregularly with several sharp peaks, the highest reaching over 300 millimetres near the end of the record. Reference ET, shown as a dotted pink line, follows a smoother seasonal cycle between roughly 60 and 190 millimetres. Streamflow, shown as a dashed dark blue line, remains low for most of the period but rises sharply to around 130 millimetres in response to the largest precipitation peak. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/56/2[Container155]/2) N/A
A two-panel chart comparing snow water equivalent and streamflow across four water years from 2014 to 2017. The upper panel shows snow water equivalent in millimetres, with a purple line rising to a distinct winter peak each year, the peaks increasing in size from roughly 250 millimetres in 2014 to about 1500 millimetres in 2017. The lower panel shows discharge in millimetres, with a blue line displaying small peaks in earlier years and much larger, sharper peaks in the final year, some labelled as rainfall runoff and others as snowmelt runoff. Dotted vertical lines connect each year's snow peak to the corresponding period in the streamflow record. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/76/2[Container156]/2) N/A
A side-by-side comparison of two satellite images of the same landscape, labelled 1985 and 2022. The 1985 image shows a largely intact mosaic of forest and grassland with a dendritic stream network and only scattered small agricultural clearings. The 2022 image of the same area shows substantially more fragmented and cleared land, with extensive rectangular agricultural fields replacing much of the natural vegetation, particularly in the southern and eastern portions of the scene, though a forested corridor still follows the stream network in the north. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/88/6/2[Container157]/2) N/A
Three side-by-side coloured maps of the Amazon basin showing drought severity indices: the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), and the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI). All three maps show a large area of extreme drought, shaded dark red, covering much of the central and southern basin, with progressively less severe conditions, shaded orange, tan, and white, toward the basin's northern and western edges. Each map has its own colour-coded legend indicating the index scale, with the PDSI map showing the most extensive area of severe drought coverage. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/98/8/2[Container158]/2) N/A
A photograph of a thin rivulet of water flowing across a gravel road or track in a coniferous forest, curving from the upper left toward the lower right of the frame. Scattered rocks, sparse grasses, and low shrubs line the water's path, with dense pine trees forming a backdrop under an overcast sky. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/114/2[Container159]/2) N/A
A side-by-side pair of photographs illustrating forest disturbance. The left photograph shows a mountainside forest with widespread tree mortality, visible as patches of reddish-brown dead and dying conifers interspersed among healthy green trees, with a prominent dead, branchless snag in the foreground. The right photograph shows the blackened, charred trunks of a burned conifer forest standing in deep snow, with a dark meltwater channel winding between the trees. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/122/2[Container160]/2) N/A
A landscape photograph of two rocky, twin-peaked mountain summits rising above a hillside covered in fynbos vegetation, including tall shrubs with narrow, silvery-green leaves in the foreground. The scene is set under a clear blue sky, with denser tree cover visible on the slope to the right. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/144/6/2[Container161]/2) N/A
A two-part chart comparing streamflow across downstream, middle, and upstream monitoring points along a river, distinguished by red, green, and blue lines respectively. The left panel shows discharge in millimetres plotted against date from April to October, with all three lines closely tracking a low baseline before diverging sharply during a mid-year peak, where the upstream site reaches the highest discharge of around 9 millimetres. The right panel shows a flow duration curve, plotting discharge on a logarithmic scale against cumulative probability, with the upstream line consistently above the middle and downstream lines across most of the probability range. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/6/2[Container162]/2) N/A
Two side-by-side line graphs comparing streamflow upstream and downstream of two reservoirs. The left panel, titled "Headwaters: above and below Lake Granby", and the right panel, titled "Middle basin: above and below Lake Powell", both show discharge in millimetres plotted against date from late 2023 to late 2025. In both panels, the downstream line, shown in green, remains flat and stable throughout, while the upstream line, shown in blue, displays two pronounced seasonal peaks reaching roughly 0.6 and 0.25 millimetres, reflecting natural snowmelt-driven variability upstream of the reservoirs. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/14/2[Container163]/2) N/A
An aerial view of a dramatic horseshoe-shaped meander in a river, carved deep into red and tan sandstone canyon walls. A small vegetated island sits within the curve of the blue-green water, with sparse desert vegetation lining the canyon floor and flat, arid tableland extending to the horizon. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/160/20/2[Container164]/2) N/A
Three side-by-side scatter plots comparing predicted and observed values at Day 10, Day 20, and Day 30, each with a red dashed one-to-one reference line. Data points are coloured by category (blue, red, green, yellow, and orange), and in all three panels the points cluster loosely around the reference line, with somewhat tighter agreement between predicted and observed values apparent in the Day 20 and Day 30 panels than in Day 10. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/162/30/2[Container165]/2) N/A
A four-panel diagram comparing hydrological model structures of increasing complexity: 1D water balance, 1D bucket, quasi-distributed, and fully distributed. Each panel shows precipitation and evapotranspiration as inputs, streamflow (and, for the simplest model, groundwater recharge) as outputs, and lists the parameters required. The 1D water balance model uses a single storage box; the 1D bucket model divides storage into upper and lower zones; the quasi-distributed model divides the catchment into four labelled sub-basins, each with its own storage; and the fully distributed model represents the catchment as a gridded surface with multiple subsurface layers. N/A N/A N/A ch8.xhtml#epubcfi(/4[Kampf-0551]/162/54/2[Container166]/2) N/A
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Back cover for 'Hydrology for Sustainability' by Stephanie Kampf, volume 2 in the Critical Physical Geography series, published by Open Book Publishers. N/A N/A N/A back-cover.xhtml#epubcfi(/4/2/2) N/A

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